Jesus in Christian and Islamic Thought:
A Christian View

by
Jerry L. Mercer, Ph.D.
Professor Emeritus, Asbury Theological Seminary

This is an unedited draft of an address prepared for a conference in the spring of 2002. It is offered to members of the Fidelis Class (and to our Internet readers) for their reflection and prayers.

This paper has been marked up for this Internet presentation. The footnotes are all superscripted and crossreferenced. If you click on a footnote, your browser will reposition the paper with the footnote at the top of the screen. Clicking on that footnote number, and you'll return to where you were in the text. Hyperlinks in underline blue type will open a new Amazon.com page focused on that particular publication. Neither Dr. Mercer, your webmaster, or Centenary Church, have a business relationship with Amazon.com for any resulting transactions you may have with them -- the hyperlinks to their site are simply for your convenience should you want to further explore the referenced material.

13 Now when Jesus came into the district of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, "Who do people say that the Son of Man is?" 14 And they said, "Some say John the Baptist, but others Elijah, and still others Jeremiah or one of the prophets." 15 He said to them, "But who do you say that I am?" 16 Simon Peter answered, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God." 17 And Jesus answered him, "Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father in heaven.

--St. Matthew's Gospel, chapter 161

Following the tragic events of 9-11, 2001, the "Lexington Herald-Leader" published an article on its front page entitled "Bush allies split on depiction of Islam as peaceful."2 At the time, President Bush, according to the article, differed with some in his party, apparently including some advisors, on whether or not Islam is essentially, as the president has said repeatedly, "a faith based upon peace and love and compassion."3 Among those who took issue with the President's characterization of Islam as a peaceful religion was Professor Eliot Cohen, a Professor and Director of Strategic Studies at Johns Hopkins University, whose area of expertise includes arms control, international relations, and military power and strategy, with a focus on the Middle East and the Persian Gulf, including Iraq.4 The "Herald Leader" quoted Cohen's article in "The Wall Street Journal" in which he says terrorism is not our basic problem but "militant Islam."5

Cohen continues, "The more you examine the religion [Islam], the more militaristic it seems. After all, its founder, Mohammed, was a warrior, not a peace advocate like Jesus."6 It is relatively easy to discount Cohen's remark, as some do, by pointing to those sections of the Qur'an that teach peace and love as Islamic values. At the same time it is disconcerting that Islamic militants repeatedly appeal to the Qur'an as validation of their destructive behavior. To be truthful, one could as easily point to Christian history, especially though not exclusively European, and conclude that Christianity is a violent movement, quite willing to safeguard its interests, political and religious, by any means at its disposal. The essential problem for hostile Islam and hostile Christianity is the person of Jesus, who preached peace, lived for peace, and succumbed to violence on the cross rather than return it. This is why a look at the Biblical view of Jesus in conjunction with the teachings of the Qur'an are very important for the current atmosphere in America and the future of Islamic/Christian relations.

Some say President Bush must maintain a "game face" of public support for moderate Muslims if he expects their help in combating terrorism. I think it likely that his views on the essential nature of Islam, as he understands it, come from his commitment to the peacemaking ideals of Jesus, whom he unashamedly follows as Lord.7 I think President Bush's innate trust of Islam, as also with other religions, is based in the hope he has that, at its core, Islam's search for God is a peaceful search for the peaceful will of a peaceful God.

Of the many things that changed in America in the wake of 9/11/01 was our awareness of the Islamic community in this country.8 To the surprise of many, there are millions of Muslims in America9, whose men worship at some 1209 mosques.10 Yet, although adherents of Islam11 constitute a significant minority in the U.S., they are the dominant religion of the Middle East and the second largest religion in the world. Coincidentally, of the one billion Muslims in the world, Arab Muslims represent only about fifteen percent of the total.12 However, with the war in Afghanistan and massive troubles in Palestine, Americans are asking questions about a tradition that once ruled much of the Old World and that for a very long time. On the whole, European peoples seem to have downgraded the social and artistic contributions of Islam, but its culture has been very important in the history of civilizations.

Though I had studied a little of the Qur'an before 9/11, and read other materials related to Islam, I did not understand what these peoples believed or the values they lived by. I began reading Islamic literature seriously, including a renewed interest in the Qur'an, in an attempt at first to understand the energy and focus of those bent on "Jihad" (that is, "holy war," as a mechanism for social change or revenge, not primarily as individual, inner spiritual warfare).13 This is to say I studied Islam because we were threatened by terrorism, which I saw as basically a Muslim problem. As I studied, I heard some Muslim people say their religion condemned the work of terrorism and I heard others using Muslim faith to justify terrorism. Gradually I began to realize that many Muslims themselves are threatened by terrorism, and that Islamic extremism, like Christian extremism, is the work of fundamentalists driven by ego needs more than the selflessness enjoined by their faith. While I found much in Islam that is also true of Christianity, I saw quickly that the major difference between us was our understanding of God and of Jesus Christ. I concluded that if we are to understand Islam we must look at its Christology.

My desire in this brief paper is to focus on Jesus of Nazareth, as He tends to be reflected in basic Christian and Islamic teaching. History is not on trial for me, though it is a legitimate concern; it is simply too large to be considered here. Of necessity, my presentation will be sketchy and incomplete. But I will have achieved my goal if I can get us to think about who we are as followers of Christ. I do not want us to think less of Islam but more about the one who, for us, is the Son of God. I certainly want us to avoid what American Muslim Michael Wolfe calls Islamaphobia.14

Before I begin a condensed comparison of the two traditions on Jesus (Christianity and Islam), there are a few preliminary observations I need to make.

There are in the Christian church a variety of views on who Jesus is and what His life means. At one extreme are those who see him--much like Islam--as a man whose extraordinary spiritual sensitivity encouraged His followers to make more of Him than He made of himself. Thus, his miraculous birth, performance of miracles, resurrection, and the notion of Christ as returning Lord are regarded as pious myths. At the other extreme are those rabid fundamentalists who bend Jesus' teaching to justify their own racial hatred and violent political methodology. Jesus and their warped personal/group agenda become one. In between these "bookends" are other views of Jesus, tending to emphasize a method of study or a particular slant on his life, a sort of picking and choosing to suit one's views, informed or not. It is easy to get bogged down in all this and become weary and discouraged about any possibility that the essential Jesus can ever be known.

As for me, I am an Orthodox Christian.15 By that, I mean I take Jesus' life and teachings, as presented in the four Gospels, and occasional teachings in the Acts of the Apostles and the Book of Revelation, at face value. Sometimes "face value" is not adequate wording, as I have found in my work with images of Jesus in the Book of Revelation, with its specialized language. Sometimes the text needs to be interpreted in the light of its culture to understand how it was read by its first readers. I am also guided in this paper by the ecumenical creeds of the first eight centuries of the church, the vast majority of which were affirmations of Christ's nature and mission. The Apostles' Creed is a hugely popular example of these creedal affirmations. In short, I accept as true Jesus' preexistence, miraculous birth, God-revealing life, ability to perform miracles, substitutionary death, physical resurrection, and eventual return to the earth to establish in fullness the eternal kingdom. I also affirm that He is the Savior (Messiah) and that redemptive faith relates to Him.16

It important for you to know my convictions if I am to be fair to Islam and what I see in its teachings about Jesus.17 As we will see, Islam affirms some Christian understandings of Jesus and denies others. Some of their denials strike at the core teaching of Christian faith. Islamic confidence in their understanding of Jesus is based in part on their shared conviction that the present New Testament text concerning Jesus has been corrupted and therefore compromised.

One more thing, this presentation can only touch on the highlights of Islamic thought, which is massive in its sources and complicated in its many aspects. The same can be said of Christian thought. Finally, I am required by our Lord to treat Muslims with respect, pray good prayers for them, live in peace with them, and bear my witness without malice. Therefore, while I will discuss Islam, as I understand it, I will not argue the issues.

Why is it helpful to discuss this subject? It is imperative for the church to know what Islam teaches about Jesus since Jesus is at the center of our faith and faithfulness to Him governs our reactions to others. This topic should encourage us to pray for Muslims and adherents of other religions, to adopt a posture of humble obedience to God as He has revealed Himself to us, and enable us to understand a little better what Muslims, especially aggressive ones, see when they consider Jesus. What we think of Jesus also informs how we approach our government and its decisions regarding war and terrorism. This is an immensely important topic for the church. Notice I said "for the church;" the world has its own agenda, which does not always agree with ours. The inherent differences between church and secular society regarding faith and values must be reserved for another time.

A disclaimer: I am not a scholar in Muslim history and theology. My studies are ongoing, so I speak as one learning and open to correction. Now to the issue at hand: Jesus in Christian and Islamic thought.

Jesus Christ: A Christian Affirmation

I begin with a simple statement on the person of Jesus, with some implication as to His work, as affirmed in one of the early creeds of the Christian Church, "The Apostles' Creed."

Who is Jesus? The Christian Church affirms:

"I believe in Jesus Christ, [God's] only Son, our Lord,
who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,18
born of the virgin Mary,
suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, died, and was buried;
he descended to the dead.
On the third day he rose again;
he ascended into heaven,
is seated at the right hand of the Father,
and will come again to judge the living and the dead."19

There are other, more elaborate, creedal affirmations of Christ in our tradition, such as The Nicene Creed20, for example, but the Apostles' Creed expresses the essential views of the New Testament; to wit, that Jesus of Nazareth is God's Son, divinely conceived, that He died on the cross [for us], descended to the spirits of Old Testament faithful, and rose from the grave on a particular day in history. He ascended into heaven, is at the side of divine favor and power, and will come again to the earth to be the judge of the living and the dead. This is the faith that shapes our Christian baptism21, and it is this faith that we attempt to live out in the world.22 Many aspects of this affirmation of Jesus are based by New Testament writers on Old Testament texts, particularly the writings of the prophets, most notably Isaiah. New Testament books that draw most heavily on Old Testament sources are the Gospels, particularly Matthew, the sermons in the Book of Acts, the book of Hebrews, and the book of Revelation.

In sum, United Methodist theologian, Thomas C. Oden, says in the second volume of his systematic theology: "Christ is as simply God as if he were not man, and as simply man as if he were not God."23 Concerning Christian teaching on "the suffering of the incarnate Lord," Oden comments, it [the divinity of Jesus] is "utterly distinctive of Christianity. It is not to be found (except prefiguratively) in Judaism and absolutely not in Islam. Hinduism and Buddhism are inclined to find the notion of the suffering, dying incarnate God rather impossible and disgusting."24

Therefore, as the Creed states, reflecting the New Testament, Jesus is the Son of God, dying and rising Savior, reigning Lord, and coming King.

One popular way of presenting the person and work of Jesus of Nazareth in Christian circles is to speak of Him as prophet, priest, and king. But what does this mean? Briefly, as prophet our Lord is the One who speaks the Word of God; as priest He is the One who offers Himself for others; as king He is the One who reigns with power. Again, as prophet our Lord ministers in teaching; as priest He ministers in dying; as king He ministers in governing. From reading your Bible, you probably know that as prophet our Lord is a type of Moses25; as priest He is a type of Melchizedek26; as king He is a type of David27. All of this together means that the main thrust of Jesus' life and ministry is to save "sinners."28 These three "offices"29 are all rooted in the Old Testament expectation of a Messiah. Now lets look at each "office" in turn.

Jesus as Prophet: By "prophet" we mean that Jesus represents and presents the will of God to people. Christ "reveals" God to us.30 The word "prophet" has many shades of meaning but we will say here that Jesus' prophetic ministry consisted largely of witnessing to the will of God through teaching, issuing calls to repentance, and speaking of the future.31 There are many texts that show this aspect of Christ's work.32 Jesus' reference to Himself as the "Son of Man" complements Ezekiel and Daniel, both Old Testament prophets.33 I suspect Christians in the Protestant tradition most often identify Jesus as a preacher and teacher (as prophet); Roman Catholics and Orthodox regard Him as priest.

Jesus as Priest: As "priest" we mean that Jesus was the mediator between human beings and God regarding sin and righteousness, and that He continues this work of intercession before the Father through the Spirit in the kingdom of God. As our priest, He offered Himself for us. We believe Jesus gave His life, rather than it being taken from Him. The primary symbol of our faith is the cross, and it is in conjunction with the cross that Jesus does his redemptive work. We Methodists believe, following John Wesley, that Jesus continues to act through what we understand as "means of grace." That is, the three primary "means of grace" are prayer, Scripture, and Holy Communion.34 Of course, the Book of Hebrews is devoted to exploring the priestly functions of Jesus, which should be studied as a whole.35

Jesus as King: As "king" we mean that Jesus is the sovereign Lord of the universe, that He protects His people, judges their enemies, and will usher in the eternal reign (kingdom) of God. The kingly work of Christ is the primary subject matter of the last book in the New Testament, the book of Revelation. In chapter 1 of Revelation we hear of a vision of the resurrected and triumphant Christ, in the 19th chapter we read of the "King of kings" come to put down evil, and at the end of the book (chapter 22) we see the Lord seated in the heavenlies, with God, the sovereign Lord of the Universe. Each of these perspectives are Hebraic expectations of King David and his successors, although not all performed well, and come to the forefront in Jesus' work as prophet, priest, and king, who did perform well.

I must add that it is important for us to realize that Jesus, while supreme KIng, did not arm His followers and set up a government as a territorial enterprise. He was a man of peace, not of the sword. It is argued that Mohammed, as part of his religious reform, had to secure himself and his followers in a hostile environment, an environment that required warfare. The same might well be said of Jesus but it did not happen that way. This is part of the tension in identifying America as a Christian nation. America is a nation heavily influenced by Christian principles, but it cannot be said to be a "Christian nation." Christianity has been identified wrongly with imperialism, militaristic and economic, for a very long time.36 The idea of Christian discipleship is change people from within, effecting what is without. Any nation can be Christian, if Jesus is taken seriously. It is important to recognize that Christianity is not the same as nationalism.

These roles of prophet, priest, and king are not just ways of talking about the historical Christ but ways of understanding His present life and work in the church and the world through the Spirit. Christians believe Jesus Christ is a "living" person, exalted before God through obedience and death, raised to new life, and continues His saving and sanctifying ministry. If anything is clear in a study of the New Testament, along with its Old Testament background, it is the Christian conviction that Jesus of Nazareth is the unique Son of God and Savior of the world.37

However, as we will see, the Jesus portrayed by Islam is considerably different from what the New Testament teaches and the creeds profess.

Jesus Christ: An Islamic Modification38

If Islam were to rewrite the Apostles' Creed to conform to its general understanding of Jesus, it would read something like this:

"I believe Jesus Christ was a great prophet,
sustained by the Holy Spirit,
born of the virgin Mary,
who performed miracles,
and taught of the One God, Allah;
he went into heaven
and is honored by Allah.

For our Muslim friends39, Jesus was an esteemed prophet of Allah (pronounced ah LAH), a historical person born of Mary, one of the greatest women who ever lived.40 He was a teacher of righteousness, a worker of miracles, "supported with the Holy Spirit"41, and one who even revived the dead.42 The Gospel of Jesus "is scripture"43, which is confirmed by the Qur'an, which is also scripture.44 Jesus is "the Messiah" of the Jews.45 Concerning Jesus' ministry, the Quran says,

"...we sent Jesus, the son of Mary, confirming the previous scripture, the Torah. We gave him the Gospel, containing guidance and light, and confirming the previous scriptures, the Torah, and augmenting its guidance and light, and to enlighten the righteous."46

Yet, like the Torah and Moses, Jesus has to give way to the new revelations given to Mohammed.

Further, Jesus did not die on the cross,47 was not related to any Trinity,48 and teaches in accordance with the teachings of the Qur'an.49 It can be said that Jesus was a Muslim.50 Jesus was not the Son or a son of God. In his commentary on Sura 2:116, 'Ali says to believe that Jesus was a son of God is "blasphemy" and detracts from the glory of Allah, especially since it would mean that Allah would have engaged in "the lower animal functions of sex."51 According to Muslim teaching, Jesus vigorously denies that he teaches any view of himself that differs from Muslim views.52

One of the better known supposed sayings of Jesus by Muslims is an image of strict spiritual life. In the saying the world is regarded as a "dunghill," a description used by Mohammed.

"Jesus used to say, 'Truly I say to you, to eat wheat bread, to drink pure water, and to sleep upon dung- hills with the dogs more than suffices him who wishes to inherit paradise.'53

The saying above comes from a non-Qur'anic source. Muslims have "traditional"54 writings on spiritual life, also concerning Jesus, that have become important to some "believers," while being rejected outright by others. The influence of such traditions on a Muslim view of Jesus may be very important. For example, in some of these sources Jesus is regarded as a wandering preacher who lived off the land. He was a strict ascetic.55 For example,

"Jesus was a constant traveler in the land, never abiding in a house or village. His clothing consisted of a cloak made of coarse hair or camel stub and two hairless shirts (?). In his hand he carried a club. Whenever night fell, his lamp was the moonlight, his shade the blackness of night, his bed the earth, his pillow a stone, his food (?) the plants of the fields. At times, he spent whole days and nights without food. In times of distress he was happy, and in times of ease he was sad."56

As encountered in the Gospels, Jesus urges fair, even generous, treatment of enemies (see the Sermon on the Mount, Matthew 5-7). The following Muslim story about Jesus tells a different story, one completely at odds with Jesus' love for "sinners" in the Gospels.

"Jesus said, "O Disciples, seek the love of God by your hatred of sinners; seek to be near Him by [doing] that which distances you from them; and seek His favor by being angry with them."57

In addition, "certain" Jews and Christians are not allies of Muslims,58 though some have been and can be. Christians and Jews (and Muslims)" who (1) believe in God, (2) believe in the Last Day, and (3) lead a righteous life "have nothing to fear, nor will they grieve."59 However, Jews, and idol worshipers, are Islam's worst enemies60, while Christians can be those closest to the believers.61

The role of Jesus in the Christian tradition seems to have been given to Mohammed62 for Muslims, with some significant alterations. A few lines about him may be in order at this point. Born in a culture dominated by tribal culture and polytheism, he was able, over many years, to focus attention on the one God, Allah by name.63 Mohammed did not claim to be more than a prophet, did not claim miraculous power, and apparently did not consider himself a mediator between God and those who believed in God.64 In many ways, Mohammed was a flawed man. His moral values were shaped largely by his times and culture. After his death some of his followers thought of him as "the Perfect Man, the human archetype and the image of a perfect receptivity to God,"65 others consider him to be sinless.66 It is important to note that the first of five "Pillars" of faith for Muslims affirms belief in the one God, Allah, and that Mohammed is His Prophet.67. Thus, God and Prophet are joined, though not the same. On the Day of Judgment, Mohammed is believed to be the great intercessor for all Muslims.68

In the Qur'an, Mohammed is affirmed as one who receives truth from God, and as one with authority to teach this truth.69 Sura 4:170 reads in part:

"O mankind! The Messenger
Hath come to you in truth
From Allah: believe in him;
It is best for you...."

Allah sends blessing on Mohammed70 and gives him revelations of God's will.71 Commenting on Sura 13:30, 'Abdullah Yusuf 'Ali says in footnote #1845, "Our Prophet came later in time than other Prophets, to complete their Message and universalize Religion. And certainly it is after his age that the process of the unification of the world began. That process is not complete yet, but it is proceeding apace."72 Speaking to Mohammed, God says,

"We have not sent thee
But as a universal
      (Messenger)
to men, giving them
Glad tidings, and warning them
(Against sin), but most men
Understand not."73

Thus, Mohammed supercedes all the other Prophets, within which Jesus has an illustrious position. Given Mohammed's exalted place in contemporary Muslim spirituality, it is impossible for him to be displaced by another person claiming to be his successor. Mohammed is "the seal" of the prophets. Although, this was attempted briefly by a leader of al Qaeda after 9/11, but it never caught on, even among the terrorists.

As concerns Jesus, however, He was the son of Mary, a prophet of God, Messiah of the Jews, a teacher in keeping with the Qur'an. He is honored by Allah and Jesus' teachings, if understood and applied, can lead one to the eternal presence of Allah. Jesus was not divine, not a reality in a Trinity, not a dispenser of salvation, did not die on the cross, and was not resurrected, though He will be.

Concluding Thoughts

In some ways the Jesus of the New Testament and the Jesus of Qur'anic thought are compatible, as we have seen. They are also at times unlike each other, as two somewhat similar but fundamentally different people. The central issue is this: Jesus of Nazareth, for the New Testament is a divine mediator between a righteous God and a sinful people (that's all of us). The righteous life we are called to is on the basis of repentance for sin and faith in the Savior. Eternal life is not a reward for righteous living but the gift of God to those who do not deserve it. The salvation process, from beginning to end, centered in Jesus of Nazareth, is the watershed between Christianity and Islam. This is not simply a theological difference; it is a practical difference, calling for differing allegiances. We celebrate the high view of God in Islam, and its emphasis on social justice. We are like Islam in our basic human longings for peace and meaning in the world and life in the next. We walk different roads with regard to the person and work of Christ, who for Christians, is the fulfillment of prophecy, the crucified and risen Savior, and the coming Judge and King.

Evangelism is very important to both Christians and Muslims. Both religions require adherents to be witnesses. There are some branches of Islam that are peaceful, just as some branches of the Christian church are peaceful; and there are some branches of Islam that are violent, just as some branches of Christianity are violent. If there is to be peaceful coexistence between the two groups, it will be done because of mutual respect for a common humanity, not by sharing a common understanding of the redemptive process.74 Christianity is not identified with any political system; Islam has a specific political vision. Christianity teaches us to turn the other cheek and to love our enemies; Islam seems less gracious, as we have seen above (Jesus on love and hate).75 Both religions regard the major figures in the other's religion (Jesus and Mohammed) to be less than their adherents claim. I do not know of any way for successful evangelism to take place between western Christians and eastern Muslims. That must happen through the eastern churches or by persons who have converted from Islam to Christ. We American Christians can pray, of course, and live peaceful lives. We must avoid at all costs hateful and judgmental attitudes toward the people and toward their faith. At the same time, we need to discuss matters of faith and we Christians simply must live out the self-giving gospel of the Lord Jesus.76

A concluding thought: the occasional rough rhetoric in the Qur'an and the violent side of Mohammed77 and the "Submitters" in his day do not, in my mind, combine in a way that justifies the events on September 11, 2001. It is a puzzle and a shock to hear Islamic terrorists gloat over the destruction of the trade towers and the slaughter of innocents, and that of many nations and varying ages. That is also a shock to sensitive Muslims. Terrorist appeals to God's will are hollow, indeed satanic. The ironic thing is that Christian faith positively does not allow reciprocity on the same level. One day I saw a bumper sticker on a pickup truck in front of me. There was a small American flag with the words, "Nuke the Bastards" in bold print. That too is the mindset of terrorism, blind allegiance to death and destruction, justified on the grounds of a supreme confidence in one's interpretation of events both Divine and human. In my thinking, true Islam does not teach such hatred in the guise of religious devotion. Every now and then a Hitler, a Stalin, a Ku Klux Klan leader, a white "Christian" supremacist, an Idi Amin, an Al Qaeda terrorist, or a Muslim cleric comes to the forefront of human events and wreaks havoc. Such people have worn military or religious garb, been government figures, family people, lovers of the arts. And they have been predators without conscience, sociopaths, and anarchists.

A few years ago many Christians wore little bracelets with the initials W.W.J.D. embossed on them. "What Would Jesus Do?" That is a very important question. In order to answer that question we must read what Jesus said, and pray for His Spirit, checked by the Biblical text and a living community of faith. We are called to self-denial, cross bearing, and faithful following. At least that is what Jesus said to His disciples in Matthew 16:24. That is still the agenda for serious followers of the Lord. I speak very frankly now. For several months I have been reading heavily about the American Civil War (1891-1865). I'm traipsing over the Virginia theatre with Lee and Hooker right now. You know what scares me about that war? Both sides really believed that God was orchestrating events so they could win in that bloodiest of all American wars. That conflict makes me wary that only by the strictest desire to do exactly what Jesus taught can righteousness surface. I know some politicians, maybe most, do not think the teachings of Jesus can be lived out on the national level, what with all the deals that have to be made, battles that have to be fought, and compromises that have to be agreed on. That may be true for them, but not for us.

Jesus is our model; we are His love-slaves (at least that is what St. Paul says). Our unity is in Him. When we became members of the church, we made certain commitments. Do you remember them? Dealing with Muslims, as with all of life, it boils down to what our baptism means...and that is for you to rethink.

---

1 All biblical quotations are representative only; at times this is true of the Qur'an as well. I realize that many will not have need of these notes, yet it is important for me to be able to point that occasional person who wants to probe a bit in a direction of study. In addition to the references in this paper, I have received much help from Islamic sites on the Web.
2 Edition: December 1, 2002, Section 1, page 1, Lexington, Kentucky.
3 Ibid.
4 Cohen's background in military affairs and his publications in areas of the military and politics, especially as concerns Israel, give him more than enough credence to be heard.
5 "Lexington Herald-Leader," Op. Cit., p. 13.
6 Ibid.
7 I suggest a quick read of President Bush's book, A Charge to Keep, 1999, p. 9f. It is interesting that the word "Islam" is not mentioned in the index, but it certainly would be after 9/11/2001.
8 The word "Islam" means "peace," "soundness," or "security." It can be translated as "submission" or "resignation." Muslims (literally "Submitters") believe that all of life should constantly be renewed by submitting everything to the will of GOD. Muslims do not like to be called followers of Muhammadanism since they do not, strictly speaking, worship the Prophet. See Footnote 34 below. In Sura 3:85 in the Qur'an we read "Anyone who accepts other than Submission as his religion, it will not be accepted from him, and in the Hereafter, he will be with the losers." (Dr. Rashad Khalifa's translation) Ali's explanatory note (The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an, p. 150, #418) takes this verse to mean that Muslim faith is a universal faith, available to all as joyful submission to the "Will and Plan of Allah." See also Sura 3:19-22 on "the only religion approved by GOD" (Khalifa's translation).
9 For help in understanding Muslim life in America, go to the following website: http://aolsvc.cc.aol.com/peopleconnection/ccenters/go.jsp?ccbrand=aol&ccname=islam.
10 For additional information in Muslim life in America, see http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/muslimlife/ Traditionally only men have gone to the mosque for the scheduled prayers.
11 There are three divisions within Islam. First, the vast majority are Sunnis. They claim to follow Mohammed. What most Americans call fundamentalists come from this group. Second, there are the Shiites (Shiah). These people honor Ali, cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed. The third group are the Imami Shiah, or "Twelvers." These people accept as authority twelve imams (teachers), the first of whom was Ali and the last of whom is still alive somewhere away from human view. He will return at the end of time to establish justice. There are other minor groups within Islam as well.
12 The Qur'an, like the Bible, recognizes that calling oneself a believer does not necessarily mean that is true. Some people are believers in name only, and will face the judgment of God as hypocrites. The Qur'an, again like the Old and New Testaments, continuously calls for living faith, not mere lip service.
13 The idea of religious faith as "warfare" is also familiar to Christians in St. Paul's letter to the Ephesians 6:10-20, though for St. Paul, as for Jesus, this warfare is spiritual and does not involve an aggressive takeover of land.
14 See his article, "As the Smoke Began to Clear: Reflections on Islam in America after 9/11." Website: beliefnet. In essence, Islamaphobia, Wolfe says, is mostly racial, partly political, and "at the margins" theological. This means the first problem to solve in Christian/Islamic relations is prejudice. I do not dispute that at all., and that from both sides.
15 Each of the books on Islamic history and spirituality referred to in this paper are criticism-neutral or pro-Islam.
16 There remains the old question: Can a Muslim be saved if that person does not have any knowledge of Christ, or has a view clouded by Christian evangelism? It is my understanding of God's grace that persons who sincerely seek the living God will find Him, and in the finding, in this life or the next, come to the realization that their acceptance by God is due to the merits of Jesus Christ, crucified and risen.
17 There are echoes of the Gospels in some verses in the Qur'an and partial quotes in other "traditional" Islamic literature. There is a tendency to freely rewrite the history of Jesus, without critical thought as to Christian theology and sources. For example, the Qur'anic Jesus makes birds of clay and gives them life, as one finds in "The Gospel of Thomas," a non-canonical source (without authority).
18 In the opening line of "The Apostles'" Creed," we have mention of the Christian understanding of the Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Obviously, there is no explanation of the Trinity, which is, after all, a mystery beyond words. It needs to be said here that the Christian view of the Trinity does not mean tri-theism, as though in the Godhead there exist three separate individuals. God is One; God is a unity. Almost anything beyond this gets one embroiled in controversy, even among Christians. Refer to footnote 7 below relating to "The Creed of Nicaea" and its language regarding the "essence" of God with regard to Jesus. Spirit and Father are not so problematic since the word "spirit" encompasses both of them perfectly, without division, and in their work. The physical manifestation of the One God occurs in Jesus of Nazareth. On the one hand, Jesus was a man untied to God through perfect humility and obedience; on the other hand, He is one with the One. This will hardly be satisfactory to most readers, if any. It is not satisfactory to me but words and images escape me to portray even the remotest idea of what Trinity means. It might be better to leave it as mystery and relate to the One God through His relations to us as we have come to understand them: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. One thing we Christians must do is resist attempts to make us polytheists. Our understanding of Jesus has to fit within the framework of the first four of the Ten Commandments (on God, see Exodus 20).
19 The Apostles' Creed (3rd century) is likely a revision of The Old Roman Creed. [This version of The Apostles' Creed is an "Ecumenical Version." See The United Methodist Hymnal, #882.]
20 Like almost all Christian Creeds for the first eight centuries, "The Creed of Nicaea" (325 AD) is Christological in nature. The primary concern of the early church was to understand for itself its view of the Jesus presented by the New Testament. Christians continue to have much the same problem in today's world. The church fathers in 325, however, stated the following about Jesus:

"We believe...in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father as only begotten, that is, from the essence of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten not created, of the same essence as the Father, through whom all things came into being, both in heaven and in earth; Who for us men and our salvation came down and was incarnate, becoming human. He suffered and the third day He rose, and ascended into the heavens. And he will come to judge both the living and the dead." John Leath (ed.), Creeds of the Churches, pp. 30-31.

Roman Catholic congregations recite this creed every Sunday at worship; it is also a foundational creed for the theology of The Orthodox Church.
21 The following confession is part of the ritual of baptism for United Methodists: "Do you confess Jesus Christ as your savior, put your whole trust in his grace, and promise to serve him as your Lord, in union with the Church, which Christ has opened to people of all ages, nations, and races? [answer] I do." The United Methodist Book of Worship, p. 88.
22 To my thinking, no one has stated better the nature of Christian discipleship than the Lutheran scholar and martyr, Dietrich Bonhoeffer. In his book, The Cost of Discipleship, he says the "supreme scandal" of our faith is "simple, unreflecting obedience to the will of Christ." (p. 170-171) This short statement needs to be unpacked word by word. It sums up what I have read in different forms in the writings of many Christian spiritual teachers. It reflects the spirit of Jesus' own teaching in Matthew 16:24, when, talking to His disciples, He said: "If any want to become my followers, let them deny themselves, and take up their cross and follow me." (NRSV translation)
23 The Word of Life, volume 2 of Oden's systematic theology, p. 165.
24 Ibid., pp. 123-124.
25 Acts 3:22.
26 Hebrews 7:17.
27 Revelation 17:14.
28 Matthew 9:10-13.
29 By "office" we mean a particular appointed task; that is, God sent the Son into the world to save the world, as in John 3:16. It is within this context that His work as prophet, priest, and king were realized. The offices are complementary and successive, following one after another in His earthly life. This means that Jesus was first, prophet, second, priest, and third, king. Now He is all three simultaneously.
30 Both Jesus Christ and His message are 'revelations" from God. Theologian Emil Brunner helps us understand the idea of revelation. "Revelation is the communication of life, not merely an intensification of the life that already exists; nor is it an enrichment of knowledge, but it is the transformation of that which is evil and destructive into saving, eternal life." Revelation and Reason, p. 28. Further, on p. 31, Brunner writes, "The unique and unrepeatable revelation is that event to which prophecy points as its real meaning, in which He Himself is here, "God with Us," the Christ." (Emphasis Brunner's) This is to say that God, so to speak, steps into human life in ways that go beyond logic, science, and the normal ways of learning. Jesus is "revealed" (made known) by the Spirit to us. Jesus Christ can be known and studied as a person in history; as "the Christ" (Messiah anointed One) He is made known to us directly by the Spirit. Revelation is the making real to us of a spiritual truth, one which, in the case of Christianity, has a sacred text (the Bible) as the context within which it is to be understood. We can say we "know" Him because He is revealed to us. This revelation is not only a personal knowledge, but a community one (that is, in the Church, the Body of Christ). To know Him is to be in a self-giving love relationship with Him.
31 In the last chapter of his magnificent Theology of the Old Testament, Walter Brueggemann says, "The testimony of Israel concerning Yahweh is always of two kinds, one to reorder the internal life of the community in ways faithful to Yahweh, the other to invite the world out beyond the community to reorder its life with reference to Yahweh." (p. 747, emphasis his) This, I think, is exactly the intent of Jesus' message and life. I have not attempted to draw lines of relationship between the Old and New Testaments, which New Testament writers often do. Nor have I attempted to understand Abraham as the primary reference of early faith for the Jews, Muslims, and Christians, which he is. But Jesus' teachings and miracles, his death and resurrection, all point toward radical interior reordering, of life's priorities and goals. Muslims would say the same thing of Mohammed. Yet, as is obvious, Christians do not understand the person of Christ like they understand the persons of Moses and Mohammed. Jesus not only proclaims the necessity of reordering, from sin to humility by grace through faith, but provides the inspoiration and energy necessary for such change.
32 Matthew 13:57; 21:11; also Hebrews 4:2, where the word Jesus brings has the same authority as the Old Testament prophets. Compare Hebrews 1:1-3, where Jesus is said to be greater than the prophets. He spoke like them but had a greater authority in that He embodied the covenant and promise they could only speak about.
33 Cf. Alan Richardson, An Introduction to the Theology of the New Testament, p. 128ff.
34 See John Wesley's sermon, he Means of Grace," in vol. 1 of the sermons (Outler edition), p. 376ff. By "means of grace" John Wesley means certain "ordinary" ways God chooses to "convey" His grace to us. The key to this Methodist notion is that the "means" are God-appointed. Prayer, for example, is taught by our Lord as a way of experiencing God's love (Matthew 7:7-8; Luke 18:1-5). The same is true for our use of Scripture (John 5:39; Acts 17:11-12) and Holy Communion (1 Cor. 11:23-26). There are other "means of grace," but this is enough to give you the general idea.
35 All references in this footnote are to the Book of Hebrews. Christ's priesthood is based on His Sonship to God (1:5-14; 3:1-6). The Lord Jesus has become our "high priest" (4:14-5:10; as such, Jesus is greater than Melchizedek, 7:11-28). Jesus is "mediator" of a "better covenant" than the covenant with Moses (8:1-13; 9:11-22). The Lord Jesus gave Himself in order to take away our sins (10:1-25). Therefore, Jesus has become our great example of steadfastness (12:1-12).
36 For some Muslims, the Crusades of the Middle Ages continue to be a powerful image of a Christian desire to dominate others, especially Muslims. It is my opinion the Crusades were disgusting and in no way represent the teachings of Jesus in His Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7). The Crusades were a political movement, not a religious one. Religion was the guise, power the goal. Members of the present Administration in Washington should avoid the word "crusade" in describing America's aggression against terrorism. The word is too loaded to be effective in Arab states.
37 You might want to refer also to the following Christological confessions in the New Testament: 1 Corinthians 12:3; Romans 10:9; Acts 2:36; Romans 1:3-4; 1 John 4:2; 1 John 5:5. See also Philippians 2:5-11; 1 Corinthians 15:3-7; Trinitarian formulas: Matthew 28:19; 2 Corinthians 13:14.
38 There are "Five Pillars" of Islam, that is, five obligations to Allah. We do not discuss the Islamic way of salvation in this address, but you might want to know the fundamental requirements held by Muslims. First, there is faith" There is no god but Allah and Mohammed is His messenger. Second, there is prayer: "Salat" is the name of the obligatory prayers, which are said fives times a day, facing Mecca. The five prayers come from the Qur'an and are recited in Arabic, the language of revelation. Third, there is the "Zakat": Zakat signifies "growth" and "purification," which means sharing one's wealth with others less fortunate. Almsgiving is a strict requirement and is handled individually. Giving to others purifies one's own possessions. Fourth, there is "the fast": Each year during the month of Ramadan, Muslims who are able fast from first light to sundown. This form of self-denial promotes closeness to God and sympathy for the poor. Fifth, these is the "Hajj" (pilgrimage): The "Hajj" occurs once a year; the month varies according to the moon. Those who are able make the journey to Mecca meet with others and circle the Ka'ba seven times. There are other liturgical aspects to the Hajj, which closes with a feast. Doubtless you have seen reports on television news reports of the massive crowds that attend the Hajj, walking counter-clockwise around the Ka'ba, believed to have been constructed by Abraham and his son, Ishmael. Certainly one gets a sense of belonging to something far greater than one's own self at this event. See The Westminster Dictionary of Worship, p. 205.
39 Being "friends" with Muslims is both desirable and possible for Christians. In the Qur'an, Sura 60:8-9, we read,

"GOD does not enjoin you from befriending those who do not fight you because of religion, and do not evict you from your homes. You may befriend them and be equitable towards them. GOD loves the equitable. GOD enjoins you only from befriending those who fight you because of religion, evict you from your homes, and band together with others to banish you. You shall not befriend them. Those who befriend them are the transgressors."

40 Sura 3:42-45.
41 Sura 2:87; 2:253. (The word "Sura" which designates a "chapter" in the Qur'an [Koran].) The Qur'an is Islam's holy book, written largely by Mohammed over a twenty year period from "revelations" he claimed to have. There are some Islamic scholars, however, who think a few portions of the Qur'an are at least partly the work of later editors or commentators, called "redactors." The Qur'an in Arabic is regarded by Muslims as the Word of God. Translations are not strictly speaking the Word of God since different words must be used to communicate the Arabic text to people of other languages. The English texts of the Qur'an quoted in this presentation are "representations" of the true text. One could make much the same claim for the use of Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic passages in the Christian Bible. One more note: the Suras or chapters in the Qur'an are, with the exception of Sura 1, are arranged from longest to shortest, not in chronological order. The Qur'an is meant to be read or chanted aloud.

Sura 1 is a beautiful opening prayer to the spirituality of the Qur'an. This prayer is prayed at each of the five times of daily prayer.

"In the name of GOD, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.
Praise be to GOD, Lord of the universe.
Most Gracious, Most Merciful.
Master of the Day of Judgment.
You alone we worship; You alone we ask for help.
Guide us in the right path:
the path of those whom You blessed; not of those who have deserved wrath,
nor of the strayers." (Khalifa's translation)

This foundational prayer acknowledges Allah to be a GOD Most Merciful and Master of the day of Judgment. One's salvation, however, is not as much a matter of faith, in the Christian sense of faith in Jesus as Savior, as in a life well lived (or a righteous life).
42 Sura 5:110.
43 Sura 3:3. As mentioned elsewhere in this paper, Muslims believe the Christian Scriptures have been corrupted and that the Qur'an restores the faith of Jesus to its original shape. I have read Islamic papers who lay the fault for this corruption of faith as the feet of Paul the Apostle, as well as other followers of Jesus, who made more of Him, it is said, than He made of Himself.
44 Suras 3:3; 5:46.
45 Sura 3:44.
46 Sura 5:46, translation by Dr Rashad Khalifa. His translation is available on the internet. Dr. Khalifa, now deceased, was apparently a very controversial figure. Strictly orthodox.
47 Sura 4:157-159. Verse 157 reads in part: "That [the Jews] said (in boast), "We killed Christ Jesus The son of Mary, The Messenger of Allah"-- But they killed him not, Nor crucified him.... For of a surety They killed him not--" ('Ali's translation, p. 236; see also footnote #663. Ali has an extended note on the subject of Christ's death, which ends with this statement: "The Qur'anic teaching is that Christ was not crucified nor killed by the Jews, notwithstanding certain apparent circumstances which produced that illusion...that disputations, doubts, and conjectures on such matters are vain; and that he was taken up to Allah (see [Sura] 4:158 and 3:55)."
48 Sura 4:171. Note: Muslims who see the Trinity composed of God, Jesus, and Mary have misunderstood the Christian concept of the Trinity. Mary, honored, even venerated by some Christians, was not a divine being or part, if we can use that kind of language, of the Godhead. She was redeemed by the grace of the child she bore, Jesus the Lord.
49 Sura 5:72-73.
50 Sura 3:50-52; see also Tarif Khalidi, The Muslim Jesus, p. 75.
51 'Ali's commentary on Sura 2:116, p. 49, #119. In spite of 'Ali's interpretation of Christian confession the Qur'an seems in places to approve of both Jewish and Christian understandings of salvation. Armstrong says, "It has never been a problem for Muslims to coexist with people of other religions," including Christianity. Op. Cit., p. 87. 'Ali has a helpful note that touches on relations with Christians on p. 292. He says Muslims "must stretch a friendly hand to all who are sincere and in sympathy with our ideals." The "ideals" have to do with Christian teaching (and, I suppose, other religions as well) that makes :life pure and beautiful while we are in it." Ibid. Surely Christians can embrace a helpful and neighborly attitude even though we understand our doctrinal views are quite opposite at serious points regarding Jesus.
52 Sura 5:116-118.
53 The Muslim Jesus, p. 76, #42.
54 The "Hadith" is a collection of tales, discourses, reports, etc. on a wide variety of subjects, including material about Jesus, some of which seems to stem from Gospel sayings and events.
55 There are numerous "traditions" of Jesus being an ascetic, much like what we read of in the early Christian desert fathers in Egypt. Many of these stories highlight Jesus' humanness, and thus separate Him from Deity. The book The Muslim Jesus is an excellent resource on Jesus as interpreted by Muslim spiritual leaders.
56 The Muslim Jesus, pp. 125-126. This account seems to have originated in the late ninth century, AD. The question marks indicate that the text is unclear as to its exact meaning.
57 The Muslim Jesus, p. 57.
58 Sura 5:51.
59 Suras 5:69; 2:62; 3:113-117.
60 Sura 5:82; 3:50-52. 3:52 reads,

"When Jesus sensed their disbelief, he said, "Who are my supporters towards GOD? The disciples said, "We are God's supporters, we believe in GOD, and bear witness that we are submitters."' (Khalifa's translation)

61 Sura 5:82..
62 Mohammed was born around 570 AD into a very poor family in Mecca. Parentless in childhood, Mohammed was raised by a grandfather and then an uncle. Later these family connections protected him from death when his preaching of the one GOD offended tribal polytheism. Mohammed's life was very interesting, especially his development as "the" Prophet, as military leader, and as governing head. Mohammed died in 632 AD. His chief contributions to Muslim faith, from my perspective, were (1) his insistence that God is one, (2) connecting Muslim faith with Abraham, and (3) in providing text (revelations) for a holy book, the Qur'an (Koran). Having a book from God was important to early Muslims since they apparently compared themselves with "The People of the Book" (Jews and Christians).
63 The Qur'an speaks much of Abraham. Cf. 3:64-70, 84, as an example. Muslims believe they are children of Abraham (Abraham's faith) and that this "father of the faithful" (Hebrews 11) taught the true religion that was eventually revealed to Mohammed.
64 After his death, Muhammed was generally regarded to be sinless, and thereby the communication of pure truth about God. Later miracles were attributed to him, including healing powers and feeding masses from small amounts of food, and eventually to some Muslims, Mohammed was regarded as part of the Divine. Perhaps the most striking miracle attributed to Mohammed, mentioned in the Qur'an, is the splitting of the moon so widely that a mountain could be seen between the two halves. (See also "Religion, Scriptures and Spirituality: Islam," Cassette series) Such popular piety grants Mohammed special status and the right to be an object of very devout veneration. Gradually Mohammed took on larger than life proportions. It would be virtually impossible to think of anyone superceding him in authority in Muslim eyes, especially since he is believed to have participated in the creation of the universe. It is easy to see that Mohammed is a Jesus figure, although I think such a comparison would be offensive to some Muslims, an offense I do not mean. Without such authority, Mohammed's "revelations" could be challenged or disbelieved without any consequences. The consequences of disbelief now can be very serious indeed since Muslims believe in the existence of hell as well as heaven. Note: I cannot help but wonder if the evolving theology of Isalm has not in fact done to Mohammed what is claimed regarding Jesus, that is, that his followers have essentially corrupted the original message and person of the Prophet, so much that he is unrecognizable.
65 Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet, p. 262.
66 "Religion, Scriptures, and Spirituality: Islam," The Audio Classics Series, 1994. This is an excellent introduction to Islam. The tapes are presented from a Muslim point of view and are not critical of Islamic spirituality, theology, or history. The tapes do familiarize listeners with some of the differing approaches to faith among various Muslim groups.
67 See Endnote 16 above.
68 The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, p. 218.
69 Sura 4:136.

"O ye who believe!
Believe in Allah
And His Messenger,
And the scripture which He
Hath sent to His Messenger...."

The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an, p 229. Footnote #646 says in part: "The chief objects of our Faith are Allah, His Messenger, and His Revelations [the Qur'an]. To all these we must give a home in our hearts." (p. 229.)
70 Sura 33:56.
71 Sura 13:30.
72 The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an, p. 596.
73 The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an, p. 1092. Footnote #3832 states that the revelations given to Mohammed are for "all mankind." P. 1092.
74 At the conclusion of his introduction to The Muslim Jesus, "Professor Khalidi suggests some hopeful discussion between Christianity and Islam. His comments are worthy of serious thought.

"The process of interaction appears to mask a deeper religious or theological reality-- namely, the need that Christianity and Islam have for complementarity. The Islamic Jesus of the Muslim gospel may be a fabrication. We may even come to discover who fabricated him and why....Nevertheless, he remains a towering religious figure in his own right--one who easily, almost naturally, rises above two religious environments, the one that nurtured him and the other that adopted him." (p. 45)

It might be helpful for you to know that "The Muslim Jesus," a collection of sayings, etc. attributed to Jesus in Islamic circles differs, in Professor Khalidi's mind, from the "Qur'anic Jesus," who appears in the Qur'an to both reflect and rebut biblical narratives about Jesus, as well as Jesus' own teachings. There are apparently several strands of thought in Islamic literature regarding Jesus, and they do not all agree with each other, by any means.
75 If the report in the "Lexington-Herald Leader" of October 12, 2002, is correct, then the Reverend Jerry Falwell has provided us with a one-sided, strident, perspective on Islam. The short article reads, "BOMBAY, India (Oct. 11) - Five people were killed Friday in Hindu-Muslim rioting and police gunfire after riots broke out during a general strike to protest the Rev. Jerry Falwell calling the founder of Islam a terrorist. Forty-seven others were injured. The rioters attacked each other with knives and stones during the strike called to protest what Falwell said on CBS television early this month. Muslim organizations said Falwell's remarks were derogatory and blasphemous. The conservative Baptist minister told the television network Islam's prophet ''was a violent man, a man of war.'' ''Jesus set the example for love, as did Moses,'' Falwell said. ''I think Muhammad set an opposite example.'' Two Muslims and one Hindu were killed by police gunfire and one Muslim and Hindu died of stab wounds in Sholapur 225 miles south of Bombay, the capital of western Maharashtra state, said Kirpa Shankar, the junior home minister of Maharashtra state . The trouble started when a group of Muslims took to the streets and were challenged by Hindus. Some rioters targeted shops, homes and vehicles, police said. Falwell's remarks had triggered street protests in Indian-controlled Kashmir on Monday." AP-NY-10-11-02 1520EDT This is an example, a sad and preventable example, of how volatile relations are between conservatives in Islam and Christianity. [Note: On Sunday, October 13, CNN reported that Falwell apologized for calling Mohammed a "terrorist" and "a man of war." This rush to judgment cannot be undone for those who were killed and injured, however, and we should be very careful not to throw around unfounded negative characterizations of others.] On Saturday, October 12, 2002, Muslim clerics in Iraq--how many I do not know--called for "jihad," a holy war against the United States. This is to be expected, just as it is to be expected that some Christians in this country are for creating havoc in Iraq. These are political issues. If they were ethical issues, and behavior was based on the respective holy books of the two religions, perhaps there could be at least tolerance. I despair of this happening, though I cannot question the power of God to create peace in willing people. Wo knows what good the future holds.
76 I think we Christians need to wrestle with what Christ's love means, and love for Christ. Perhaps this question: If I am a Christian, what or who am I? I have been a serious Christian since 1955. Since that time my life has become completely entwined with Christ's life and teaching. That is, I am seeking what it means to say one "follows" Jesus. We follow Him as a manifestation of the One God, a manifestation in ways we can understand but whose reality surpasses our best understandings. The life He gives us is relatively simple: do not continually bend to your own drives or interests, identify with the suffering and compassion of Jesus, and faithfully follow His teachings, and so do God's will, every day (see Matthew 16:24). Such a life delivers us from the domination of feelings and ego-driven compulsions. We can honestly love God and our neighbor (meaning all human beings).
77 It would be helpful if you could read Karen Armstrong's chapter 8 ("Holy War, pp. 164-210) in Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. It will give you insights into the values of the culture into which Mohammed was born, something of his personality, and a good understanding of jihad. On p. 223, she uses the words "impose the pax Islamica on war-torn Arabia." (Her emphasis) It is this idea of imposition of the "peace of Islam" that makes for anxiety in the western world. Exactly what does this mean? Armstrong is certainly correct in saying that Mohammed was considerably more "political" than Jesus, when it comes to defining the shape of a political system.

Revised August, 2003
First published on the Internet, October 2003
Copyright © 2003, Jerry L. Mercer

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